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January 29 th marks the passing of Fritz Haber. Haber was a German chemist who discovered a process to create ammonia from atmospheric gases. The Haber-Bosch process is a reaction that fixes nitrogen to form ammonia (NH 3 ) from nitrogen gas (N 2 ) and hydrogen gas (H 2 ) under pressure over an iron catalyst. Haber discovered the process on a laboratory scale using table top equipment. German chemical engineer Carl Bosch converted the laboratory equipment to be used on large scale industrial equipment. This process was important in the production of agricultural fertilizers to replace the guano industry of South America. During World War I, the process was important to Germany for the production of munitions and explosives. The process would earn both Haber and Bosch Nobel Prizes in Chemistry (1918 and 1931 respectively). Today, the Haber-Bosch process accounts for 100 million tons of fertilizer per year.

How well can you distinguish between physical and chemical changes? Physical changes involve a change in the form of a substance, but it remains the same on the molecular level. On the other hand, chemical changes involve chemical reactions. New products are created, often accompanied by changes in temperature or color. Melting the wax of a candle is an example of a physical change. The wax only changes shape -- it's still wax. Burning a candle is a chemical change. The wax undergoes a chemical reaction, producing carbon dioxide and water. Do you think you understand? Here's a quick self-test you can take to check whether you can tell the two types of changes apart... Try the quiz

The design of the Olympic medals changes for every Olympics, plus each host city gets to mint the medals, but the chemical composition of the medals is regulated so that there is not too much variation in the value from one Olympics to the next. While the Olympic gold medals do contain pure gold, do you know if they are solid gold or plated gold? Are plated medals plated with real solid gold, or with 14k or 18k gold or something else?. Question: Are the Olympic Gold Medals Real Gold? You can tell the Olympic gold medals are colored like gold, but are they solid gold or even real gold? Here's the answer to the question. Answer: At one time, Olympic gold medals were real solid gold. However, the last time a solid gold medal was awarded was at the 1912 Stockholm Olympics. Modern Olympic gold medals are sterling silver that has been plated with real solid gold. Gold Medal Regulations The National Olympic Committee (NOC) allows quite a lot of leeway in the production...

January 28 th is Kathleen Yardley Lonsdale's birthday. Lonsdale was a leading figure in the field of crystallography. She began her work in the laboratory of William Bragg developing the techniques of x-ray crystallography. Her early work centered on simple molecules and branched into more complex organic compounds. She was the first to verify the shape of the benzene molecule. She showed the six carbon atoms that make up benzene were laid out in a flat hexagon. Her later research involved x-ray crystallography of pharmaceuticals and other biochemical compounds. The Royal Society elected her as their first female Fellow in 1945 to honor her work.

I'm talking about making a positive impression... there are lots of ways you can make a negative impression on a science fair judge. If that's your goal, turn in a poster with breakfast stains on it, which describes a project totally unrelated to science that you started on the way to school that day. On the other hand, if you are doing a science fair project and want to win an award or get a good grade, here are the types of things a science fair judge.

January 27 th marks the passing of David M. Cowie. Cowie was a medical researcher who was instrumental to the addition of iodine in table salt in the United States. Cowie was investigating the high incidents of goiter in the United States Great Lakes and Pacific Northwest areas. Goiter is a swelling of a thyroid gland in the neck and was recognized as a national health problem during the draft preceding World War I. Several young men were disqualified from service because of the condition. The main reason for the development of goiter is the lack of iodine in a person's diet. The amount of iodine necessary to ward off these effects was very small and finding an effective means to administer iodine to people was needed. Cowie was aware of a Swiss process of adding sodium iodide to table salt (sodium chloride) and managed to convince Michigan salt producers to include minute quantities of sodium iodide to their salt for consumption locally. This type of salt was ident...

Learning how to balance chemical equations is an essential skill for chemistry class or work in chemistry. Mastering this skill takes practice. Here are some resources that show you, in written and video tutorial form, how to balance equations, some examples of balanced equations and a printable practice sheet so you can see if you understand the concepts. Balancing Chemical Equations A chemical equation describes what happens in a chemical reaction. The equation identifies the reactants (starting materials) and products (resulting substance), the formulas of the participants, the phases of the participants (solid, liquid, gas), and the amount of each substance. Balancing a chemical equation refers to establishing the mathematical relationship between the quantity of reactants and products. The quantities are expressed as grams or moles.

Here a Lytro light field photo of chemistry glassware for you. Good glassware is important for a positive outcome in the lab. Poor glassware will break when exposed to temperature extremes or even while mixing chemicals and may not indicate accurate volume measurements. When you're buying glassware, look for borosilicate glass. This glass becomes brittle with time and use, so it's best to get new glass if you can afford it. It's also important to get the right glassware for your purpose. This image shows a few staples of the chemistry lab. Can you name them?

Colored gold alloys are seen in jewelry and gold is often added to glass to give it color (e.g., ruby glass), but this project is a little different. You'll be performing any of a number of chemical reactions to make a gold chloride solution turn purple. What You Do Mix together a dilute gold chloride solution (0.01%) and a 1% Rochelle salt (potassium sodium tartrate) solution. It's best if you use distilled water to prepare your solutions, as contaminants in tap water may affect your results. Another option is to make "Purple of Cassius". This is a purple gold made by introducing tin to a very dilute gold solution. The author of the article posted at The Alchemy Website attempted to produce this color by reacting a dilute solution of gold chloride with stannous chloride. He obtained an amber solution, but not the desired purple coloration. Gold may be reduced using formaldehyde. Add some sodium bicarbonate to a gold chloride solution to make the s...

January 26 th marks the passing of Edward Jenner. Jenner was the English physician who noticed milk maids who had been infected with cowpox seemed to never contract the more serious disease, smallpox. Smallpox kills a third of the people who contract the disease, but if a person survives smallpox, they never catch it again. Variolation was the predominant smallpox treatment of the time. Variolation is when healthy people are exposed to a disease in hopes of giving them a milder (survivable) case of the disease. Between 2 and 3% of people exposed to variolation died. Dr. Jenner tried a different route. He collected the pus from a cowpox sore on a milk maid and injected it into a young boy. He developed cowpox but quickly got over it. A couple weeks later Jenner exposed the boy to smallpox. He did not develop the disease. Jenner called his treatment a vaccine, from the Latin 'vaca', which means 'cow'. This treatment quickly became a standard treatment and...

Cut flowers are beautiful and they still smell lovely when you turn out the lights, but don't you wish the flowers would stay beautiful in the dark? Well, they can! There is more than one way to make a glowing flower. Also, there are some hoaxes out there on the internet about how to make flowers glow, so I'll steer you clear of those.   Glowing Flower - Method #1 Test a highlighter pen to make sure it glows under black (fluorescent) light. Yellow is reliable, but some other colors glow brightly, too. Use a knife or saw to cut open the pen and expose the fibers which contain the ink. Remove the ink strip. Squeeze dye from the ink pad into a small amount of water. Trim the end of a flower so that it will be able to take up water. Place the flower in the water with the ink. Allow several hours for the flower to absorb the fluorescent ink. When the flower has taken in the ink its petals will glow under black light.

Do you have trouble remembering which variable goes on the x-axis and which goes on the y-axis when you plot your experimental data? There's a handy acronym called DRY MIX that can help you keep it straight. You control and measure variables in an experiment and then record and analyze the data. There is a standard way to graph the data, with the independent variable on the x-axis and the dependent variable on the y-axis. How do you remember what independent and dependent variables are and where to put them on the graph? There is a handy acronym: DRY MIX D = dependent variable R = responding variable Y = graph information on the vertical or y-axis M = manipulated variable I = independent variable X = graph information on the horizontal or x-axis The dependent variable is the one being tested. It is called dependent because it depends on the independent variable. Sometimes it is called the responding variable. The independent variable is the one...

Hydrogen is one of the easiest gases to prepare. You can do it at home, using water! The easiest method uses electricity from a battery to split water, H 2 O, to release hydrogen gas, H 2 . This electrolysis method can be improved several ways, plus there are several other reactions that produce hydrogen... Learn how

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Sodium Chemical & Physical Properties   Sodium Sodium Basic Facts: Symbol: Na Atomic Number: 11 Atomic Weight: 22.989768 Element Classification: Alkali Metal CAS Number: 7440-23-5 Sodium Periodic Table Location Group: 1 Period: 3 Block: s Sodium Electron Configuration Short Form : [Ne]3s 1 Long Form : 1s 2 2s 2 2p 6 3s 1 Shell Structure: 2 8 1 Sodium Discovery Discovery Date: 1807 Discoverer: Sir Humphrey Davy [England] Name: Sodium derives its name from the Medieval Latin ' sodanum ' and the English name 'soda'. The element symbol, Na, was shortened from the Latin name 'Natrium'. Swedish chemist Berzelius was the first to use the symbol Na for sodium in his early periodic table.

Chemical & Physical Properties Lithium Atomic Number: 3 Symbol: Li Atomic Weight: [6.938; 6.997] Reference: IUPAC 2009 Discovery: 1817, Arfvedson (Sweden) Electron Configuration: [He]2s 1 Word Origin Greek: lithos , stone Properties: Lithium has a melting point of 180.54°C, boiling point of 1342°C, specific gravity of 0.534 (20°C), and valence of 1. It is the lightest of the metals, with a density approximately half that of water. Under ordinary conditions, lithium is the least dense of the solid elements. It has the highest specific heat of any solid element. Metallic lithium is silvery in appearance. It reacts with water, but not as vigorously as does sodium. Lithium imparts a crimson color to flame, although the metal itself burns a bright white. Lithium is corrosive and requires special handling. Elemental lithium is extremely flammable.

Chemical & Physical Properties of Hydrogen Hydrogen Atomic Number: 1 Hydrogen Symbol: H Hydrogen Atomic Weight: [1.00784; 1.00811] Reference: IUPAC 2009 Hydrogen Discovery: Cavendish, 1766. Hydrogen was prepared for many years before it was recognized as a distinct element. Hydrogen Electron Configuration: 1s 1 Hydrogen Word Origin: Greek: hydro, water; genes, forming Named by Lavoisier. Hydrogen Isotopes: Protium (0 neutrons), Deuterium (1 neutron), and Tritium (2 neutrons) Ground level: 2S 1/2 Ionization potential: 13.5984 ev Physical form: Colorless gas Melting point: -259.2°C Boiling point: -252.762°C Critical temperature: -240.18°C Density: 0.082 g/L Specific heat: 14.304 J/g•K Valence: 1 Hydrogen Properties: Hydrogen is the most abundant element in the universe. The heavier elements were made from hydrogen or from other elements that were made from hydrogen. Hydrogen is a colorless, odorless, combustible gas. Hydrogen gas is so ...

January 21 th marks the passing of John Couch Adams. Adams was a British mathematician and astronomer who calculated the existence of a planet outside the orbit of Uranus to explain the irregularities of Uranus' orbit. He presented his calculations to the Cambridge Observatory, where they did nothing with the information. Meanwhile, a French mathematician named Urbain Le Verrier was doing the same calculations. He presented his results to Berlin Observatory's astronomer Johann Gottfried Galle, who quickly found Neptune within 1° of Le Verrier's prediction. When Berlin announced the discovery, Astronomer Royal George Airy remembered John Adams and his paper and tried to claim priority of the discovery. Both men are generally credited with the discovery today, but Le Verrier's actual published calculations and closer position is cited to give him the credit of discovery.

Have you ever wondered why glue doesn't stick to the inside of the glue bottle? Why not set up an experiment to see if you can figure out what glue needs in order to stick? Some people think glue bottles are made from a special plastic that repels glue. This is easy to check. If you put a drop of glue on the bottle and allow it to dry, does it stick? Does it matter whether you try this on the inner or outer surface of the bottle? Is it evaporation of the solvent, or is it something in air that makes glue sticky? It may be complicated to check every component of air, but you can easily prepare a gas that isn't air, to see what happens. For example, you could mix baking soda and vinegar or sublimate dry ice to make carbon dioxide gas. This gas is heavier than air, so you can fill a container with it. If you put a drop of glue inside the carbon dioxide to dry, the solvent will evaporate. Is that enough to make the glue sticky? Place an opened bottle of glue insid...

January 20 th is the birthday of Alexandre-Emile Béguyer de Chancourtois. Béguyer de Chancourtois was a French geologist who was the first to organize the elements on a chart by increasing atomic weights. His graph was plotted on a cylinder where the circumference corresponded to 16 units, or the weight of oxygen. A spiral graph was wrapped around the cylinder where elements with similar chemical properties would line up vertically on the cylinder. This gave the impression of the properties of elements had recurring properties or "periodicity".

Hydronium   Hydronium is what you get when you put water and hydrogen ions together, forming H 3 O + . Hydronium is the simplest form of oxonium, which is any ion that contains the trivalent oxygen cation. Hydronium is also known as hydroxonium. As with many species in chemistry, the nomenclature isn't the same everywhere.Where would you find hydronium? Hydronium is found in interstellar clouds and in the tails of comets. Interstellar hydronium probably forms as a result of chemical reactions following the ionization of H 2 into H 2 + . Research is ongoing to elucidate the nature of the reactions

This round molecule is a buckyball. Can you believe it occurs naturally? Buckyballs are so interesting that they were named the 1991 Molecule of the Year by Science Magazine . How much do you know about them? I've got a multiple choice quiz so you can test your knowledge... Bring it on!

Learn Together Supplemental Instruction offers review sessions each week. Get together with your classmates to compare notes, discuss concepts, develop study strategies,

One of the most popular bedroom design ideas is the eclectic style. It combines various styles to create a vivid and interesting room. The combination may incorporate vintage furniture, but use modern art or accents to create contrast. This style is sometimes sub-categorized under contemporary or modern styles by designers and other professionals, but in the end, this is the most popular style because it is fun, universal, diverse, and easy to achieve. Here are six tips to help you create an eclectic bedroom design, while maintaining balance and charm.

The bedroom can serve as a multifunctional room--such as an office, library, or laundry room--but in the end, it is a sanctuary for sleep. This room should be the most luxurious and personal space in any home - a soothing oasis that is conducive to relaxation and comfort. Here are some tips on how you can design your bedroom for better sleep, which should be considered along with color options, styles, and furniture. 1. A good mattress is the key to a good night’s rest. A good night's rest may be as simple as getting a new mattress. If your mattress is too lumpy, hard, or soft, it will keep you up all night trying to get comfortable. There are many different types of mattresses, such as pillow, foam, innerspring, adjustable, waterbeds, and airbeds; each type has manufacturers who guarantee comfort and better sleep. When you shop for a mattress, follow these simple steps:  •Research extensively, because this is a very important and expensive purchase. •Once you have a mattress ...

January 20 th marks the passing of Carl Gräbe. Gräbe was a German organic chemist who discovered a method to synthesize the distinctive red alizarin dye with Carl Liebermann. This discovery greatly reduced the cost of the red dye that was previously only available from the madder plant. Gräbe was also the chemist who introduced the nomenclature used to describe bond locations on benzene rings. Benzene is a ring of carbon atoms forming a hexagon. When two functional groups attach themselves to different points of the hexagon, different prefixes are used to differentiate different patterns. Gräbe introduced the use of the prefixes para-, meta-, and ortho- to the organic chemist's dictionary. The para- prefix indicates the functional groups are attached on opposite carbon atoms. Meta- is used to indicate when there is a one carbon atom gap between functional groups. Ortho- is used when two functional groups are on adjacent carbon atoms.

Definition of a Molecule Molecules are formed when two or more atoms are held together by chemical bonds. Molecules Formed by Covalent Bonds For example, the oxygen molecule consists of two atoms of oxygen. In the case of oxygen, the bond that holds the two atoms together is known as a covalent bond, and here is how it works. The oxygen atom has 8 each of protons, neutrons, and electrons. The protons and neutrons are found in the center of the atom, known as the nucleus, and the electrons surround the nucleus in layers, or shells. The oxygen atom has 2 electrons in its first shell, and 6 in its second and outer shell. However, in chemistry, there exists the octet rule, which states that atoms generally strive to have 8 electrons in their outer shell. The oxygen therefore is 2 electrons away from a complete outer shell. When it binds with another oxygen atom, they can share two pairs of electrons and so each will have 8. When atoms share electrons like that, they for...

What Are Types of Chemical Reactions

Chemical & Physical Properties Beryllium Atomic Number: 4 Symbol: Be Atomic Weight: 9.012182(3) Reference: IUPAC 2009 Discovery: 1798, Louis-Nicholas Vauquelin (France) Electron Configuration: [He]2s 2 Other Names: Glucinium or Glucinum Word Origin: Greek: beryllos , beryl; Greek: glykys , sweet (note that beryllium is toxic) Properties: Beryllium has a melting point of 1287+/-5°C, boiling point of 2970°C, specific gravity of 1.848 (20°C), and valence of 2. The metal is steel-gray in color, very light, with one of the highest melting points of the light metals. Its modulus of elasticity is a third higher than that of steel. Beryllium has high thermal conductivity, is nonmagnetic, and resists attack by concentrated nitric acid. Beryllium resists oxidation in air at ordinary temperatures. The metal has a high permeability to x-radiation. When bombarded by alpha particles, it yields neutrons in the ratio of approximately 30 million ne...

Chemical & Physical Properties of Calcium   Calcium Calcium Basic Facts: Symbol: Ca Atomic Number: 20 Atomic Weight: 40.078 Classification: Alkaline Earth CAS Number: 7440-701-2 Calcium Periodic Table Location Group: 2 Period: 4 Block: s Calcium Electron Configuration Short Form : [Ar]4s 2 Long Form : 1s 2 2s 2 2p 6 3s 2 3p 6 4s 2   Shell Structure: 2 8 8 2 Calcium Discovery Discovery Date: 1808 Discoverer: Sir Humphrey Davy [England] Name: Calcium derives its name from the Latin ' calcis ' which was the word for lime (calcium oxide, CaO) and limestone (calcium carbonate, CaCO 3 ) History: The Romans prepared lime in the first century, but the metal was not discovered until 1808. Swedish chemist Berzelius and Swedish court physician Pontin created an amalgam of calcium and mercury by electrolyzing lime and mercury oxide. Davy managed to isolate pure calcium metal from their amalgam.

Chemical & Physical Properties Magnesium Atomic Number: 12 Symbol: Mg Atomic Weight: 24.305 Discovery: Recognized as an element by Black 1775; Isolated by Sir Humphrey Davy 1808 (England) Electron Configuration: [Ne] 3s 2 Word Origin: Magnesia , a district in Thessaly, Greece Properties: Magnesium has a melting point of 648.8°C, boiling point of 1090°C, specific gravity of 1.738 (20°C), and valence of 2. Magnesium metal is light (one-third lighter than aluminum), silvery-white, and relatively tough. The metal tarnishes slightly in air. Finely divided magnesium ignites upon heating in air, burning with a bright white flame.

The scientific method is an objective way to explore the world around us. It is a systematic means of asking and answering questions, used by both scientists and non-scientists, all over the world. By the end of this quiz, you should feel confident you know the order of the steps of the scientific method and the difference between the three types of variables you may encounter in an experiment... Take the quiz

Have you ever wanted to complete a word search containing the elements? Now you can fulfill that wish with the Element Word Search.

Chemical & Physical Properties   Krypton Atomic Number: 36 Symbol: Kr Atomic Weight: 83.80 Discovery: Sir William Ramsey, M.W. Travers, 1898 (Great Britain) Electron Configuration: [Ar] 4s 2 3d 10 4p 6 Word Origin: Greek kryptos : hidden Isotopes: There are 30 known isotopes of krypton ranging from Kr-69 to Kr-100. There are 6 stable isotopes: Kr-78 (0.35% abundance), Kr-80 (2.28% abundance), Kr-82 (11.58% abundance), Kr-83 (11.49% abundance), Kr-84 (57.00% abundance), and Kr-86 (17.30% abundance). Element Classification: Inert Gas

Chemical & Physical Properties of Argon   Argon Atomic Number: 18 Symbol: Ar Atomic Weight: 39.948 Discovery: Sir William Ramsay, Baron Rayleigh, 1894 (Scotland) Electron Configuration: [Ne] 3s 2 3p 6 Word Origin: Greek: argos : inactive Isotopes: There are 22 known isotopes of argon ranging from Ar-31 to Ar-51 and Ar-53. Natural argon is a mixture of three stable isotopes: Ar-36 (0.34%), Ar-38 (0.06%), Ar-40 (99.6%). Ar-39 (half-life = 269 yrs) is to determine the age of ice cores, ground water and igneous rocks. Properties: Argon has a freezing point of -189.2°C, boiling point of -185.7°C, and density of 1.7837 g/l. Argon is considered to be a noble or inert gas and does not form true chemical compounds, although it does form a hydrate with a dissociation pressure of 105 atm at 0°C. Ion molecules of argon have been observed, including (ArKr) + , (ArXe) + , and (NeAr) + . Argon forms a clathrate with b hydroquinone, whi...

Neon Atomic Number: 10 Symbol: Ne Atomic Weight: 20.1797 Discovery: Sir William Ramsey, M.W. Travers 1898 (England) Electron Configuration: [He]2s 2 2p 6 Word Origin: Greek neos : new Isotopes: Natural neon is a mix of three isotopes. Five other unstable isotopes of neon are known. Neon Properties: The melting point of neon is -248.67°C, boiling point is -246.048°C (1 atm), density of gas is 0.89990 g/l (1 atm, 0°C), density of liquid at b.p. is 1.207 g/cm 3 , and valence is 0. Neon is very inert, but it does form some compounds, such as with fluorine. The following ions are known: Ne + , (NeAr) + , (NeH) + , (HeNe) + . Neon is known to form an unstable hydrate. Neon plasma glows reddish orange. The discharge of neon is the most intense of the rare gases at ordinary currents and voltages.

Helium Helium Atomic Number: 2 Helium Symbol: He Helium Atomic Weight: 4.002602(2) Helium Discovery: Janssen, 1868, some sources say Sir William Ramsey, Nils Langet, P.T. Cleve 1895 Helium Electron Configuration: 1s 2 Word Origin: Greek: helios, sun. Helium was first detected as a new spectral line during a solar eclipse. Isotopes: 7 isotopes of helium are known. Properties: Helium is a very light, inert, colorless gas. Helium has the lowest melting point of any element. It is the only liquid that cannot be solidified by lowering the temperature. It remains liquid down to absolute zero at ordinary pressures, but can be solidified by increasing the pressure. The specific heat of helium gas is unusually high. The density of helium vapor at the normal boiling point is also very high, with the vapor expanding greatly when heated to room temperature. Although helium normally has a valence of zero, it has a weak tendency to combine with certain othe...

January 18 th is Edward Frankland's birthday. Frankland was an English chemist who pioneered the idea of valency. He theorized the an element could combine with a limited selection of other elements and established the field of structural chemistry. Together with Joseph Lockyer, Frankland discovered the only element to be discovered outside of Earth before it was discovered terrestrially. Both men were investigating the spectrum given off by the sun when they found a series of lines that did not correspond to any known elements. They named their discovery "helium" after the Sun, or Helios. Their discovery coincided with French astronomer Pierre Janssen solar eclipse discovery of helium. Helium was only found in the spectra of stars and nebulae but never on Earth. It would take another 30 years before helium was detected in an ore of uranium by Swedish chemists Per Teodor Cleve and Nils Langlet. Find out what else occurred on this day in science history.

Once upon a time on a high school field trip, my class visited a magic shop, where we got some disappearing ink. We had great fun spritzing each other with the dark blue ink, which became invisble after a few seconds of exposure in the air. The teacher who was our chaperone wasn't quite as amused as we were when her silk blouse was 'stained' with the ink. The color disappeared, but a visible spot remained from the liquid on a dry-clean-only fabric. Therefore, these instructions for disappearing ink are presented to you with the advice that you don't spray the ink onto anything that can't survive washing. Otherwise, disappearing ink is easy to make and can be used to demonstrate acid-base indicators.

Here's a bit of chemistry you may want to know if you're ever pulled over and given a breath test: dieting can cause you to test positive for a DUI breathalyzer. According to the National Substance Abuse Index, many breathalyzers measure methyl groups, which are a product of alcohol metabolism, rather than the presence of ethyl alcohol itself. This means that any chemical exposure or metabolic process that produces methyl groups may produce a false positive breathalyzer result. High protein, low carbohydrate diets, including the Atkins diet, causes your body to produce ketones or acetone, which the test reads as a possible metabolite from drinking alcohol. Other causes of false positive DUI breathalyzer tests include absorption of chemicals from pumping gas, inhaling glue fumes, handling glue or medical conditions including hyperglycemia. In-car ignition interlock devices may test for alcohol, but non-specifically, meaning any alcohol will register a positive re...

January 17 th marks the passing of two people, William Pickering and Clyde Tombaugh, who were important to the discovery of the dwarf planet, Pluto. William Pickering was an American astronomer who believed there was a planet outside the orbit of Neptune that caused the unusual shape of the orbit of Neptune and Uranus. He was instrumental in the establishment of Lowell observatory in Flagstaff, Arizona with Percival Lowell to search for this "Planet X". Powell spent the rest of his life searching, even photographing Pluto on film twice without recognizing the planet. Clyde Tombaugh joined the staff at Lowell Observatory and was given the task of taking systematic photographs of portions of the night sky on two nights one week apart. He would load the images in a device called a blink comparator that rapidly switches the two photographs. This allowed Tombaugh to detect slight differences between the photographs which would suggest movement. He found a change fr...

Question: What Are the Ingredients in Rubbing Alcohol? Answer: One of the types of alcohol you can buy over the counter is rubbing alcohol, which is used for disinfection and may be applied to the skin to produce a cooling effect. Do you know the chemical composition of rubbing alcohol? It is a mixture of denatured alcohol, water and agents added to make the alcohol unpalatable to drink and sometimes colorants. There are two common types of rubbing alcohol. Isopropyl Rubbing Alcohol Most rubbing alcohol is made from isopropyl alcohol or isopropanol in water. It is common to find isopropyl rubbing alcohol at concentrations from 68% alcohol in water up to 99% alcohol in water. The 70% rubbing alcohol is highly effective as a disinfectant. Additives make this alcohol bitter-tasting, to try to prevent people from drinking it. Isopropyl alcohol is toxic, in part because the body metabolizes it into acetone. Drinking this alcohol can cause headache, dizziness, nausea, vo...

Here's a fun chemistry demonstration that's perfect for Valentine's Day or to illustrate an oxidation-reduction reaction. The Vanishing Valentine involves shaking a solution, causing it to turn pink. If the pink Valentine solution is left undisturbed, it will become colorless. The color change cycle can be repeated several times. It is caused by the oxidation and reduction of resazurin. an indicator that is pink or colorless depending on its oxidation state. Vanishing Valentine Materials 100 ml of a 0.133 M dextrose solution (C 6 H 12 O 6 ) 100 ml of a 1.0 M sodium hydroxide solution (NaOH) 1 ml of a 0.1% resazurin solution a 250-ml or 500 ml Erlenmeyer flask or separatory funnel (resembles a heart) stopper for the flask dropper or pipette Prepare the Solutions Dextrose Solution: Dissolve 2.4 g of dextrose in distilled or deionized water to make 100 ml of solution. Sodium Hydroxide Solution: Prepare the 1.0 M sodium hydroxide solution by dissolvin...

Although it may look complicated to make, rock candy is simply made of crystallized sugar. In this video, learn how to make this classic treat

Chemistry is the study of matter and the interactions between different types of matter and energy. The fundamental building block of matter is the atom. An atom consists of three main parts: protons, neutrons, and electrons. Protons have a positive electrical charge. Neutrons have no electrical charge. Electrons have a negative electrical charge. Protons and neutrons are found together in what is called the nucleus of the atom. Electrons circle around nucleus. Chemical reactions involve interactions between the electrons of one atom and the electrons of another atom. Atoms which have different amounts of electrons and protons have a positive or negative electrical charge and are called ions. When atoms bond together, they can make larger building blocks of matter called molecules.

The element boron consists of two isotopes, 10 5 B and 11 5 B. Their masses, based on the carbon scale, are 10.01 and 11.01, respectively. The abundance of 10 5 B is 20.0%. What is the atomic abundance of and the abundance of 11 5 B? Solution The percentages of multiple isotopes must add up to 100%. Since boron only has two isotopes, the abundance of one must be 100.0 - the abundance of the other. abundance of 11 5 B = 100.0 - abundance of 10 5 B abundance of 11 5 B = 100.0 - 20.0 abundance of 11 5 B = 80.0 Answer The atomic abundance of 11 5 B is 80%

January 15 th is Artturi Ilmari Virtanen's birthday. Virtanen was a Finnish biochemist who invented the AIV (his initials) fodder technique to prevent spoilage in stored green silage. Storing green plant fodder during long winters was always difficult since by the end of winter, it would ferment and be rendered inedible and possibly result in starvation. Virtanen noticed the process of fermentation would cease when a particular acidity was reached. He prepared a solution of dilute hydrochloric or sulfuric acid and added it to the stored fodder. The fodder remained fresh and did not affect its nutritive value. This discovery greatly changed the way agricultural fodder is stored. It also earned Virtanen the 1945 Nobel Prize in Chemistry. 1997 - Kenneth Vivian Thimann died. Thimann was an English-American plant physiologist who isolated the plant growth hormone auxin. Auxin promotes cell elongation, formation of roots, and growth of buds in plants. Thimann's disc...

Thames and Kosmos produces several science kits, including multiple chemistry sets. The Chem C3000 is their ultimate chemistry kit. Chemistry education and labs have moved toward computer simulations and 'safe' chemicals, so it's actually quite hard to find a kit that offers the types of hands-on experimentation that set the standard for chemistry labs in the past. The Chem 3000 is one of the few chemistry kits on the market today that contains chemicals and equipment necessary to perform over 350 high school / advanced chemistry experiments. This is the most popular chemistry kit for home school chemistry and self-teaching. Description This is the ultimate chemistry kit ! Thames & Kosmos Chem C3000 kit contains everything in their Chem C1000 and Chem C2000 kits, plus more chemicals and equipment. You'll be able to perform over 350 chemistry experiments. The kit comes in a box containing two styrofoam packing trays. The company reserves the rig...

Thames and Kosmos makes several serious chemistry kits that include glassware, chemicals, and detailed workbooks that explain how to perform experiments. These kits are perfect for anyone looking for the full chemistry lab experience, including students seeking to satisfy home school requirements. The Chem C1000 and Chem C2000 kits offer numerous experiments at economical prices. The Chem C3000 kit is an exceptional complete set that essentially sets you up with a home chemistry lab and chemicals to perform hundreds of experiments. Although Thames and Kosmos makes high-end advanced sets, the company also makes introductory kits for kids.

Chemistry kits are a fun way to introduce kids to hands-on chemistry, plus they are a must-have if you're learning chemistry from home. I've tried many kits over the years. Some were duds, while others offered hours of engagement, reliable results, and clear instructions. Here's a short list of my favorite sets, grouped by experience level and topic

You know what metals are. You have iron in your blood, might wear a gold or silver ring on your finger, and eat using stainless steel utensils. Yet, how good are you at metal trivia? What interesting facts about metals do you know?... Take the quiz

January 14 th marks the passing of Cato Guldberg. Cato and Peter Waage were Norwegian chemists who discovered the chemistry law of mass action. The law of mass action relates the rate of a reaction to the concentration of the reactants. They had an interesting journey to get their work recognized and is a lesson in getting published in the 'right' scientific journals. They initially published their findings in a Norwegian scientific journal and consequently, gained very little recognition for their research. They republished their work in a French journal which did not attract any more attention. Their work remained obscure until German chemist, Wilhelm Ostwald published an article that mentioned the law and proved their results with experiments of his own. Dutch chemist Jacobus van't Hoff derived his kinetics equations in 1888 and received credit for the discovery, they republished again in a German journal and finally got the recognition for their work. 20...

Technically, all food is slightly radioactiv e. This is because all food and other organic molecules contain carbon, which naturally exists as a mixture of isotopes, including radioactive carbon-14. That's the basis for carbon dating , used to identify the age of fossils. However, some foods emit much more radiation than others. Here's a look at 10 naturally radioactive foods and how much radiation you get from them. 1. Brazil Nuts If there was an award for "Most Radioactive Food," it would go to Brazil nuts. Brazil nuts contain high levels of two radioactive elements: radium and potassium. Potassium is good for you, used in many biochemical reactions, and one of the reasons why the human body is itself slightly radioactive. Radium occurs in the ground where the trees grow and is absorbed by the plant's root system. Brazil nuts emit over  6,600 pCi/kg of radiation. Most of that radiation passes harmlessly through the body, plus the high levels...

Some of the foods you eat are naturally radioactive. Sometimes the radiation comes from isotopes that a plant absorbs as it's growing, while other foods are radioactive because they contain high levels of elements that exist as a mixture of isotopes. Pictured here is a common food that emits radiation.   Question: What Is Radioactivity? What is Radiation?    Unstable atomic nuclei will spontaneously decompose to form nuclei with a higher stability. The decomposition process is called radioactivity. The energy and particles which are released during the decomposition process are called radiation. When unstable nuclei decompose in nature, the process is referred to as natural radioactivity. When the unstable nuclei are prepared in the laboratory, the decomposition is called induced radioactivity. Answer: There are three major types of natural radioactivity: Alpha Radiation Alpha radiation consists of a stream of positively charged particles, called a...

One of the most common calculations you'll be expected to perform on data is standard deviation. It is so important that most calculators have a button for it! However, you should be able to do this calculation by hand, plus you need to know which standard deviation formula to apply. That's right! There is more than one. Apply the population standard deviation formula when you are analyzing a complete set of data. This may be data from all the members of a class or all the trials of an experiment. Apply the sample standard deviation formula when you are analyzing a sample or set of samples from a larger population. Note that the sample standard deviation formula contains a correction factor, called Bessel's correction, that expresses increased uncertainty in how reliable your data is. Why would you do this? The correction factor helps form a more realistic prediction of what you could expect from future testing. It is helpful when you can't get data from ...

Michael de Podesta studied Physics at Sussex University, receiving his B.Sc. in 1981 and was awarded a D.Phil. in 1985. After postdoctoral work at Bristol University he was appointed a lecturer at the University of London in 1987 and joined NPL in 2000. Since then he has specialised in temperature measurements of all kinds and has recently completed the most accurate measurement of temperature in history. Michael is a chartered physicist, a member of the Institute of Physics and in 2009 he was awarded an MBE for Services to Science.   The webinar begins by asking the question “Why is the Earth’s surface the temperature it is?”. The answer to this question is not contentious but is often not fully appreciated. This understanding then forms the basis of an analysis of why scientists are concerned that human emissions of carbon dioxide are causing Global Warming.

Do you need to learn chemistry fast? Here is how you do it! Plan To Learn Chemistry Fast The first step is to determine exactly how long you have to learn chemistry. You'll need a lot more discipline to learn chemistry in a day compared with a week or a month. Also, keep in mind you won't have great retention if you cram chemistry in a day or a week. Ideally you want a month or longer to master any course. If you do end up cramming chemistry, expect to review the material if you need to apply it to a higher level chemistry course or remember it for a test further down the road. A Word About Chemistry Lab If you can do labwork, that's fantastic, because the hands-on learning will reinforce the concepts. However, labs take time, so most likely you'll miss this segment. Keep in mind labs are required for some situations. For example, you have to document labwork for AP Chemistry and many online courses. If you are doing labs, check how long they take ...

pH is a measure of hydrogen ion concentration or [H + ] in an aqueous solution. It is a useful gauge of the acidity of a solution. Yet, do you know why we use the symbol "pH" or what it stands for? Have you ever wondered what pH stands for or where the term originated? Here is the answer to the question and a look at the history of the pH scale. Question: What Does pH Stand For?     Answer: pH is the negative log of hydrogen ion concentration in a water-based solution. The term "pH" was first described by Danish biochemist Søren Peter Lauritz Sørensen in 1909. pH is an abbreviation for "power of hydrogen" where "p" is short for the German word for power, potenz and H is the element symbol for hydrogen. The H is capitalized because it is standard to capitalize element symbols. The abbreviation also works in French, with pouvoir hydrogen translating as "the power of hydrogen". Logarithmic Scale The pH scale is a l...

January 13 th marks the passing of Paul Niggli. Niggli was a Swiss mineralogist who was a pioneer of x-ray crystallography. He developed the mathematical system of space groups that defined 230 different atom arrangements based on x-ray diffraction patterns. X-ray crystallography works by shining x-ray radiation through a crystal structure and detecting the interference pattern generated by the gaps between individual atoms. This information can tell you the position of atoms in a crystal, the width of atomic bonds, and even the size of the atoms themselves. All this information can give detailed help in determining the structure of a molecule. All that is really needed is a pure sample that can be crystallized. 1927 - Sydney Brenner was born. Brenner is a South African biologist who shares the 2002 Nobel Prize in Medicine with H. Robert Horvitz and John Sulston for their discoveries of how genes regulate organ development and cell death. His research centered on th...

Mix two clear solutions, wait, and watch the liquid turn to gold! This is a simple alchemy project or chemistry demonstration, based on early attempts to make gold from base metals.     Liquid Gold Materials Solution A 1 gram sodium arsenite 50 ml water 5.5 ml glacial acetic acid Prepare Solution A by stirring the sodium arsenite into the water. Mix the glacial acetic acid into this solution. Solution B 10 grams sodium thiosulfate (photographer hypo) 50 ml water Prepare Solution B by stirring the sodium thiosulfate into the water. Let's Make Liquid Gold! Pour one solution into the other. The clear solution will turn gold after about 30 seconds. For dramatic effect, keep track of the time and command the solution to turn into gold. You can even use a magic word, if you like. The Chemistry Behind How It Works There is a delayed reaction between the acid and the sodium thiosulfate to release hydrogen sulfide gas. The hydrogen sulfide reacts in turn ...

One of the quests of the ancient alchemists (and possibly modern ones as well) was to transmute a base material into gold. While it's possible to turn lead into gold using a particle accelerator, alchemists tend to seek chemical reactions that might produce gold. One reaction they explored appeared to turn water into gold. You can try this too, as an interesting experiment or as a memorable chemistry demonstration.

You can obtain pure lithium from a lithium battery. It's an adult-only project and even then, you need to use safety precautions, but it's simple and easy.     Safety Precautions Lithium reacts with moisture and may spontaneously ignite. Don't allow it to come in contact with your skin. Also, cutting into a battery often causes a short circuit, which may produce a fire. While this is not unexpected or problematic, it does mean you need to perform this procedure on a fire-safe surface such as concrete, preferably outdoors. Eye and skin protection is a must. Materials You want a new battery for this project since the lithium can be extracted as a relatively uncorroded metal foil. If you use a used battery you'll get a product that might be better for making colored fire, but it will be impure and fragile. New Lithium Battery (e.g., AA or 9V lithium battery) Safety Glasses or Goggles Gloves Insulated Wirecutters and Pliers Procedure Basically yo...

While you may know Adderall and other amphetamines can cause psychosis (in addition to other effects), were you aware other stimulants can cause psychotic behavior, including caffeine? This is called stimulant psychosis and is characterized by: delusions hallucinations disordered thinking catatonia (extreme cases) Physical symptoms are those of stimulant overdose, which you can get without suffering stimulant psychosis: nausea diarrhea hypertension (high blood pressure) rapid breathing hyperthermia (elevated temperature) sleep deprivation tremor Drugs that are known to cause stimulant psychosis include: amphetamines methylphenidate (Ritalin) cocaine caffeine The effect typically occurs at high doses or from chronic use. Often it is temporary, although sometimes recovery is incomplete. In the case of caffeine, psychosis may be related to lack of B-vitamins, nervous system exhaustion, or a pre-existing mental condition. It's somewhat controversial beca...